Molecular mechanism of nucleotide excision repair.

From its very beginning, life has faced the fundamental problem that the form in which genetic information is stored is not chemically inert. DNA integrity is challenged by the damaging effect of numerous chemical and physical agents, compromizing its function. To protect this Achilles heel, an intricate network of DNA repair systems has evolved early in evolution. One of these is nucleotide excision repair (NER), a highly versatile and sophisticated DNA damage removal pathway that counteracts the deleterious effects of a multitude of DNA lesions, including major types of damage induced by environmental sources. The most relevant lesions subject to NER are cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers (CPDs) and (6-4) photoproducts (6-4PPs), two major kinds of injury produced by the shortwave UV component of sunlight. In addition, numerous bulky chemical adducts are eliminated by this process. Within the divergent spectrum of NER lesions, significant distortion of the DNA helix appears to be a common denominator. Defects in NER underlie the extreme photosensitivity and predisposition to skin cancer observed with the prototype repair syndrome xeroderma pigmentosum (XP). Seven XP complementation groups have been identified, representing distinct repair genes XPA–G (discussed in detail below). In the last decade, all key NER factors have been cloned and the core of the ‘cut-and-paste’ reaction has been reconstituted in vitro from purified components. Recently, XPC (complexed to hHR23B) has been identified as a DNA-damage sensor and repair-recruitment factor. The general transcription factor complex TFIIH, containing the XPB and XPD helicases, mediates strand separation at the site of the lesion. XPA verifies the damage in an open DNA conformation and is crucial in the assembly of the remainder of the repair machinery. Replication protein A (RPA) stabilizes the opened DNA complex and is involved in positioning the XPG and ERCC1–XPF endonucleases responsible for the DNA incisions around the lesion. After removal of the damagecontaining oligonucleotide, typically 24–32 nucleotides in length, general replication factors fill in the remaining gap and close it. Two modes of NER can be distinguished: repair of lesions over the entire genome, referred to as global genome NER (GG–NER), and repair of transcription-blocking lesions present in transcribed DNA strands, hence called transcription-coupled NER (TC–NER). Most XP groups harbor defects in a common component of both NER subpathways. GG–NER is dependent on the activity of all factors mentioned above, including the GG– NER-specific complex XPC–hHR23B. The rate of repair for GG–NER strongly depends on the type of lesion. For instance, 6-4PPs are removed much faster from the genome than CPDs, probably because of differences in affinity of the damage sensor XPC–hHR23B. In addition, the location (accessibility) of a lesion influences the removal rate in vivo. In TC–NER, damage is detected by the elongating RNA polymerase II complex when it encounters a lesion. Interestingly, a distinct disorder, Cockayne syndrome (CS), is associated with a specific defect in transcription-coupled repair. The identification of two complementation groups (CS-A and CS-B) shows that at least two gene products are specifically needed for fast and efficient repair of transcribed strands. Phenotypically, CS is a very pleiotropic condition characterized by photosensitivity as well as severe neurological, developmental, and premature aging features. Most of these symptoms are not seen even with totally NERdeficient XP patients. The additional symptoms of CS suggest that transcription-coupled repair and/or the CS proteins have functions beyond NER. Also, non-NERspecific lesions (such as oxidative damage) that stall transcription elongation appear to be removed in a transcription-coupled fashion, linking a blocked polymerase to multiple repair pathways. Intriguingly, some XP-B, XP-D, and XP-G patients display CS features combined with XP manifestations. Yet other XP-B and XP-D individuals suffer from the CS-like brittle-hair syndrome trichothiodystrophy (TTD). This clinical conundrum points to additional roles of these NER factors as well. A recent mouse model for TTD has linked mutations in the XPD subunit of the dual functional TFIIH complex with deficiencies in basal transcription underlying at least some of the TTD manifestations. Thus, NER defects are associated with a surprisingly wide clinical heterogeneity due to additional functions of the NER factors involved. 1Corresponding author. E-MAIL [email protected]; FAX 31 10 408 9468.